1. Welt

The load-bearing part of the shoe, with the help of which the upper of the shoe is attached to the sole.

2. Hard toe cap

An intermediate part of the upper of a shoe in the toe part, between the upper and the lining.

Maintains the shape of the toe part and also serves to protect the feet from external mechanical influences.

3. Vamp

The outer part of a shoe upper that covers the top surface of the foot. Can be reinforced with textile details: interlining and sidewall, which prevent stretching of the top and deformation of the sides. During the use of shoes, the vamp (front) is subject to severe deformation due to numerous repeated bends, and that is why it is a critical part of the shoe upper.

4. Boots

The outer parts of a shoe upper that cover the back of the foot. The boots have laces or belts with buckles. During the use of shoes, ankle boots are subjected to less intense mechanical stress than the vamp.

5. Lining

The inner part of the upper of the shoe is made of vegetable tanned leather - it is in direct contact with the foot and should be especially soft, capable of allowing air to pass through.

The lining wears out most intensively in the toe and heel areas.

6. Hard back

The internal heel is a reinforcing element at the back connection of both parts of the shoe upper. It is located between the soft layer of the back (lining) and the back (ZNR).

Provides dimensional stability of the heel part, and also serves to protect the feet from external mechanical influences and helps fix the foot in the shoe. Made from natural saddle leather, thermoplastics, leather cardboard, granitoli, etc.

7. Sole

The part of the bottom of the shoe that is in direct contact with the ground. Dress shoes have a thickness of about 5 mm, while durable shoes have a correspondingly greater thickness. It protects the foot from contact with the ground, softens mechanical impacts when walking, running, jumping, protects shoes from wear, penetration of water and dirt, as well as from exposure to aggressive environments. Along with the external details of the upper, the design of the sole also plays a role in shaping the appearance of the shoe. The tread pattern (running layer of the sole) determines the antifriction (slip resistance) properties of the shoe. When wearing shoes, the sole is exposed to intense influences - abrasion on the ground, repeated deformation during compression and bending, wetting and drying, temperature changes. The quality of the sole largely determines how long a shoe will be worn.

8. Insole

A shoe part that matches the shape of the main insole. Serves to improve the aesthetic, comfortable and hygienic properties of shoes. It is a layer of especially soft skin that comes into contact with the bottom surface of the foot.

9. Main - set-in insole

The part of the bottom of the shoe located under the entire surface of the foot to which the top and bottom of the shoe are attached. When using shoes, the insole is subjected to repeated bending and compression, and in the absence of an insole, it is exposed to sweat and abrasion from the foot. The materials used to make the insoles must be resistant to these influences, absorb sweat well, and firmly hold nails and threads. In shoes, leather insoles are used (single and glued from two layers), combined (from a layer of leather and artificial insole material or special cardboard).

10. Forgiveness

Serves to fill cavities formed during the process of sewing the welt. When walking, it makes the sole springy and stable.

11. Gelenok

A part of a shoe that is attached between the main insole and the sole. It is a spring made of wood or steel (10x1.5 cm). Placed in the cavity formed by the welt and insole, from the middle of the heel to the beginning of the instep. Creates a stable support and prevents heel bending.

12. Heel

A critical part of the bottom of a shoe, designed to raise the heel of the foot to a certain height.

13. Stroke

A strip of leather nailed to the insole is a continuation of the welt and forms the base for the sole and heel. For shoes with a sewn welt, the edge is attached with wooden pins, in other cases it is nailed.

14. Sock

The outer part of a shoe upper that covers the back of the toes. In the process of wearing shoes, the toe is subject to the greatest mechanical and physical-mechanical influences, as a result of which scratches, dirt, etc. remain on it.

15. Boot

The outer part of the upper of a shoe that covers the lower leg, sometimes part of it or the thigh.

16. Tongue

The outer part of the top of boots or low shoes, located under the front part of the ankle boots, to protect the foot from damage by blocks and pressure from laces.

What are shoes made of?

One of the main characteristics of any shoe is the material from which it is made. It is the material of the shoes that ensures both its aesthetic appearance and service life.

In addition, each material requires special care, and using conventional cleaning methods without considering the material can cause irreparable damage to the shoes.

If you ask to name the most common materials for shoes, most will remember only 5-6 names. In fact, there are much more of these materials, although it should be noted that not all materials are now used to make everyday shoes, and some of them are used to produce special shoes with increased strength and waterproofing characteristics.

Natural materials for shoes are fabric, suede and genuine leather: nubuck, crack, tanned leather and others. Material such as leather was known back in ancient times, when it was also used to make shoes and clothing. Due to its characteristics, leather is considered an elite material for shoes, and genuine leather shoes have always been the most expensive. To produce more mass-produced and affordable shoes, artificial materials are used, including artificial leather.

The most practical is chrome-tanned leather, which does not absorb moisture and does not deform. Shoes made of crack and nubuck are also not susceptible to cold and moisture, but the surface of these materials takes on an unaesthetic gloss over a fairly short period of time. Shoes made of fabric are cheap, very light and comfortable, but their main disadvantage is their fragility, and after washing or cleaning such shoes often lose their brightness of color.

One of the most common materials for modern shoes is suede - soft leather that has a velvety appearance and is a durable fabric with thick short pile on the front side. In terms of its characteristics, suede is similar to corduroy, but, unlike this material, it is denser and heavier. They also produce artificial suede with a fleecy surface, which is a leather substitute.

For special shoes (for example, military ones), a fabric similar to “avizent” is used, and the “Gortex” membrane provides the boots with absolute waterproofness. For shoes with intensive use, Cordura is also used - a durable and at the same time lightweight material that is resistant to damage.

Animal leather (cow or pig) is most often used in shoe production. Textile fibers, such as cotton, and man-made fibers and leather, which have the same properties as natural fibers, are also used. Materials such as rubber and caoutchouc are used to make shoes that protect feet from rain and dampness.

Nowadays, many artificial elastic materials are known that have properties similar to natural textile fibers and animal skin.

What materials are houses made from?

Houses can be built from a variety of materials. Which one to choose depends on the place of residence, climate, habits and funds available to the builders.

The most commonly used materials are stone or brick, cement, iron, wood, ceramics, glass and some materials made from petroleum used as insulating materials.

What is soap?

This is a mass made from vegetable oils or animal fats with the addition of an alkaline product: caustic soda or potassium carbonate.

Soap dissolves in water and is used to remove dirt and grease.

Soap was invented many centuries ago, and its production was already known in Ancient Egypt and the ancient civilizations of the East.

What materials are used in the kitchen?

Items used in the kitchen are made from a wide variety of materials, such as metals such as steel, iron or aluminum. Motors and contacts of household electrical appliances are made of metals: refrigerators or freezers, washing machines, microwave ovens, stoves, etc. Plastic is usually used to produce appliance housings; the motor and various electrical parts are placed in it. Rubber is used to make seals and joints of parts, for drains, and glass is inserted into doors and windows.

What is glass made of?

Glass is the most commonly used material by humans. It is strong and heavy and difficult to cut, although it is easy to break as it is brittle, but the most important thing for its use is that glass is transparent.

Currently, glass is made from sand, calcium carbonate and limestone.

When producing glass, all the ingredients are mixed and placed in a furnace at a temperature of 1400-1500 degrees C. In this case, the mixture melts, that is, turns into an almost liquid mass, and after cooling, the result is glass.

How are products stored?

We mainly eat natural products. Many of them spoil very quickly because bacteria, light and air have a detrimental effect on them.

Nowadays, most food is vacuum packaged, removing air to prevent spoilage. Other products are protected by a plastic wrap or bag that preserves them. Fresh foods such as meat, fish and fruits should be consumed within one to two days.

There are other ways to preserve food, such as drying and salting. When drying, products are exposed to the sun or placed in a dry place for several weeks. At the same time, the liquid contained in them evaporates and the food does not spoil for a long time. Salting (salting) is based on the use of salt to protect products from the growth of bacteria in them. The refrigerator also helps keep food fresh for several days. Frozen foods are being consumed more and more every day because they can be stored for many months. Preservation methods such as making marmalades and confitures are also very practical.

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Leather shoes In terms of production volume, it has the largest share among manufactured footwear products. Its range is very diverse according to various criteria: purpose, gender and age of the consumer, seasonality of wear, types, designs, etc. In order to improve the performance characteristics of footwear and meet the growing needs of the market, the raw materials, material and technical base of the footwear industry is constantly being improved.

In the last decades of the 20th century. Due to the rapid development of the oil refining industry and the production of synthetic plastics, the range of materials for footwear has expanded significantly. The automation of the production of footwear and leather materials has noticeably increased, the machine park has been updated, which has made it possible to obtain materials and products with a higher level of technological characteristics and consumer properties.

Artificial materials for the bottom of shoes have become widespread, which in their consumer properties - abrasion resistance, water resistance, aesthetic properties, are not only not inferior to natural leather, but in many cases superior to it.

Noticeable results have been achieved in the production of soft artificial and synthetic leathers that well imitate natural leather both in appearance and in performance indicators - softness, elasticity, wear resistance. New triple materials* have been created on woven and knitted bases using a combined polyurethane coating.

To organize modern shoe production, materials of various natures and purposes are needed. Among them there are two classes - main and auxiliary.

Basic materials used for the manufacture of external, internal and intermediate parts of the top and bottom of shoes. Upper materials include natural, artificial and synthetic soft leather, textile materials (fabrics, knitted fabrics, non-woven materials, felt), natural and artificial fur. The materials for the bottom of the shoes are natural hard leather, rubber, rubber, plastic, cardboard and wood.

Auxiliary materials Designed for fastening parts, finishing and decorating shoes. Fastening materials include threads, nails, screws, pins and adhesives. Finishing materials include paints, finishing and polishing materials, textiles and haberdashery products (cords, ribbons, braid), shoe fittings (buckles, buttons, blocks, hooks, fasteners, eyelets, eyelets, etc.).

Obviously, the most important of all the materials used in the production of leather shoes are natural leather, as well as artificial and synthetic materials. Let us consider the features of production, varieties, structure and purpose of these materials.

Genuine Leather is the most important material for the production of leather shoes, as it allows you to obtain shoes with the best consumer properties: beautiful appearance, light weight, high vapor and air permeability.

The main raw materials for leather production are relatively large (over 0.2 m2) skins of mammals, mainly domestic animals (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, etc.) and less often wild animals (elk,

Deer, wild boar, etc.) - Skins of sea animals (walruses, seals, dolphins, whales, etc.) are used in small quantities. fish (cod, catfish, sharks, etc.), reptiles (snakes, lizards, crocodiles) and birds (ostriches, etc.).

Depending on the type of animal and the weight of the skin in the paired state, raw hides are divided into small, large and pork.

TO small leather raw materials include the skins of cattle calves (skin, calf, outgrowth), foals (foal, marking), sheep, goats (domestic and wild), camels and deer calves (fawn).

TO large leather raw materials include the skins of adult animals: cattle (half-skinned, goby, cow, bull, bull), buffalo, donkeys, mules, horses, camels and elk.

Pork skins Domestic and wild animals are divided by area into small (30-70 dm2), medium (71-120 dm2) and large (over 120 dm2).

Skin called the outer cover removed from the carcass of an animal (fresh skin) and preserved from decay (preserved skin). The skin of an animal consists of hair and skin tissue.

The hair (or coat) is formed from thin downy and thicker guard or bristly hairs, consisting of a shaft and root.

Skin tissue is formed by three layers: outer (epidermis), middle (dermis) and inner (subcutaneous fat) (Fig. 8.12).

Epidermis, or periocutaneous (from gr. epi- above, derma- skin) is the superficial, thinnest layer of skin tissue, formed from several layers of epithelial cells of varying degrees of aging and accumulation of synthesis products (keratonic proteins, lipids and lipoproteins).

After removing the hair and epidermis, the tanned leather has a certain natural pattern of the front surface, characteristic of this type of raw material, which is called merey. Mereya serves as a commodity sign in recognizing the raw materials from which leather is made.

Dermis(skin itself) - the main, thickest and most durable layer of skin tissue. It contains networks of fibers from the proteins collagen and elastin and transitional formations (formations) of these fibrous proteins.

The thickness, solidity of fibers and bundles, the complexity of their weave, packing density and angle of inclination determine such physical and mechanical properties of leather as strength, density, extensibility, elasticity, wear resistance. In addition, the natural structure of the fibrous plexus of the dermis significantly affects steam, water and air permeability, moisture capacity, moisture transfer and other hygienic properties of the rut. The angle and density of the plexus of collagen fiber bundles in the dermis vary depending on the type and age of the animal, as well as on the topographic area of ​​the skin.

The subcutaneous fat layer is located directly under the dermis and is a tissue consisting of fat cells arranged in cells of collagen and elastin fibers. It contains a network of blood and lymphatic vessels and muscle cells. The amount of fat deposits depends on the type and breed of animals, the time of slaughter and other factors.

Having a common structure, the microstructure of skins has differences that are characteristic for each type of animal, which determines the properties, quality and intended use of raw materials and the resulting leather. Besides, in the same skin? the structure of the skin is different in different topographic areas.

Topographical are called areas of the skin corresponding to< ющие определенным частям тела животного и отличающиеся строением, химическим составом и физико-механическимй свойствами. Эти различия существенно влияют на товарные свойства и качество кожи, обусловливают производственное назначение шкуры, характер технологических процессов ее переработки, а также учитываются при раскрое кож на детали

shoes Depending on the location of the skin area, its thickness, density, mechanical strength, extensibility and location of structural elements change.

During the tanning process, hides are converted into leather, i.e. material suitable for making shoes and other products.

Leather represents the dermis of the skin, which has retained the fibrous structure, but has changed its physical and chemical properties under the influence of tanning agents and finishing processes.

Leather production is carried out in tanneries and begins with the selection of hides by type, preservation method, weight or area, thickness or density, grade, as well as region of origin or breed of livestock. This is necessary for the correct implementation of technological operations and obtaining leather material that is homogeneous in properties.

All processes and operations of tanning production, according to their purpose and role in the formation of leather properties, are divided into the following main groups: preparatory, tanning, post-tanning and finishing.

Purpose preparatory processes and operations is the extraction of the dermis from the skin and bringing its structure to a state suitable for tanning. The uniform distribution of tanning substances in the rut and the possibility of obtaining a finished semi-finished product with the specified properties depend on the correct preparation of the hide for tanning. Skins that have undergone preparatory processes are called bare.

The main preparatory processes include: soaking, liming and dehairing, deashing, softening (for the production of soft leather), pickling (to prepare for tanning with mineral salts) or salting, degreasing. The listed processes alternate with mechanical operations: fleshing, wool cutting, cleaning the front side, sawing along the thickness (doubling), cutting into topographic areas.

Preparatory operations are performed differently, depending on the type of raw hide, the method of preserving it and the type of leather being produced.

Tanning- the process of converting skin into leather as a result of the chemical and adsorption interaction of tanning substances with the functional groups of the dermal collagen protein.

Tanning is the main process of leather production. As a result of tanning, the leather increases in weight and thickness, becomes porous, acquires flexibility and elasticity.

guest, greater resistance to hot water, chemicals, bacteria and enzymes.

The tanning process consists of two stages - physical and chemical. At the first stage (physical), tanning substances, under the influence of adsorption, penetrate into the thickness of the fibrous structure of the skin, are deposited on the surface of the fibers and fill the gaps between them. In the second stage (chemical), collagen interacts with tanning substances, forming strong compounds, as a result of which the physicochemical properties of the dermis are irreversibly changed and it turns into skin.

Many inorganic (mineral) and organic compounds have a tanning effect. The use of certain tanning agents and their combinations determines the name of the tanning method.

TO inorganic tanning agents include some compounds of chromium, aluminum, titanium, zirconium, silicon and molybdenum, which form stable complexes in water with acid anions and protein functional groups.

As organic tanning agents Vegetable tanning agents (tannids), synthetic tanning agents (syntans), highly unsaturated fats, and aldehydes are used. Tanning methods in which these substances are used are called, respectively, vegetable (tannin), syntan, fat and aldehyde.

The importance of all tanning agents in industry is not equal. The most widely used salts of trivalent chromium are used for the production of soft leather, as well as plant tannins mixed with syntans for the production of hard iodine-insoles and yuft leathers. Other tanning agents are used only for producing leather for special purposes.

Post-tanning and finishing processes and operations are carried out with the aim of giving the skin the necessary physical and mechanical properties and the appropriate appearance. After these operations, shoe upper leathers acquire softness, flexibility, elasticity, a beautiful appearance, and their water resistance increases. Leather for the bottom of shoes increases density, stiffness and water resistance.

The composition and sequence of post-tanning and finishing processes and operations are not the same and depend on the type of leather being produced and its purpose.

The main post-tanning and finishing processes of leather production include washing and neutralizing, dyeing, fatliquoring and filling, drying, top dyeing

tion (finishing). The listed processes alternate with mechanical operations: planing, laying, heavy, grinding, polishing, pressing, rolling, etc. Some processes and operations, for example laying, drying, heavy, grinding, finishing are performed two or more times, alternating with other operations.

Once the tanning process is complete, the finished leather is fed to the measuring machine. Modern cars are equipped with special photoelectric sensors that operate using an electrical signal. These signals are processed in counting and summing devices and converted into numerical expressions characterizing the area of ​​the skin in decimeters.

Artificial and synthetic shoe materials. Currently, there are practically no shoes made only from genuine leather. The development of chemical science and technology has made it possible to create a wide range of artificial and synthetic shoe materials that can replace natural leather. Approximately 90-95% of all shoes have soles and heels made of rubber, polyurethanes and other polymer materials. More than 75% of shoes are produced using hard artificial materials for intermediate and internal parts, and a certain part - with soft artificial and synthetic leather uppers.

The use of polymer materials for these purposes not only replaces natural leather, but in some cases leads to an improvement in the quality of shoes. Thus, soles made of genuine leather have high water resistance and insufficient wear resistance. Polymer soles used instead do not have these disadvantages; in addition, they can be several times lighter and cheaper.

The introduction of artificial materials into shoe production makes it possible to develop new, more advanced methods of manufacturing products. For example, instead of traditional fastening methods (nailing, piercing, etc.), chemical methods (adhesive, casting) are now widely used.

Along with their low cost, artificial leather is more technologically advanced than natural leather, since it has uniform thickness and uniform properties over the entire area, which allows them to be cut in multi-layered layers. Artificial materials for the bottom of shoes are abrasion-resistant and water-resistant, and the increased elasticity of the polymer coatings of artificial leather for the top of shoes allows us to weld, emboss, and mold parts with high quality work performed. Besides,

the significant advantages of artificial materials are: the ability to vary properties within wide limits; the possibility of producing artificial materials in the form of units and parts (heels, soles, etc.); the possibility of giving them specific properties that natural leather does not have; high production efficiency.

However, some types of artificial leather have reduced resistance to repeated bending (especially at low temperatures). Almost all artificial leathers are characterized by lower hygienic properties (insufficient air and vapor permeability), insufficient moldability and dimensional stability, in comparison with natural leathers.

According to their purpose, a distinction is made between artificial and synthetic materials for the top and bottom of shoes.

Artificial and synthetic materials for shoe uppers include artificial and synthetic soft leathers for shoe uppers and linings and artificial materials for hard heels and toes of shoes.

Artificial soft leathers are materials* that are obtained by impregnating fibrous bases and applying a top coating of polymer compositions. The name of artificial soft leather reflects the type of coating, type of base, purpose and individual features of the material.

Synthetic soft leathers are the materials whose bases are impregnated and coated during the synthesis of the porous structure of polyurethanes.

Artificial and synthetic leathers for shoe uppers should imitate natural leather in appearance and properties. They are made in a variety of base types and types of impregnations and coatings.

Artificial and synthetic lining leathers must have high vapor permeability, hygroscopicity, sweat resistance, as well as high abrasion resistance and low rigidity.

Artificial materials for hard heels and toes of shoes must have rigidity and elasticity, the ability to take the shape of the heel or toe part of the last, and resistance to moisture and abrasion.

Artificial and synthetic materials for the bottom of shoes include rubber, plastics, thermoplastic elastomers, and shoe cardboard.

Rubber is a fairly common material in shoe production. It is produced in a wide assortment

mente, different in structure and composition, purpose, thickness, color, etc. Depending on the structure, rubbers are distinguished between non-porous and porous. According to their purpose, rubber is divided into sole rubber, heel rubber, heel rubber, etc. By color, rubber is distinguished between black and colored.

Plastics widely used in shoe production. They have a set of performance properties that make them competitive among other materials and have great prospects for use in the footwear industry. For the manufacture of lower parts, plastics based on both polymerization resins (polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, polypropylene, etc.) and polycondensation resins (polyurethanes, polyamides, etc.) are used.

Thermoplastic elastomers(TEP) constitutes a special group of synthetic sole materials in which the elasticity of rubber is combined with the thermoplasticity of a polymer.

Due to its high elasticity, strength, hardness, abrasion and tear resistance, as well as good formability, TPR is increasingly used as a material for the bottom of shoes. The advantage of TEP is also the possibility of their repeated processing, i.e. organizing waste-free production, using used shoe parts as secondary raw materials.

Shoe cardboard is a sheet material consisting of crushed leather, cellulose and other fibers and fillers, glued with latexes, dispersions or emulsions of polymers. In footwear production, parts cut out from sheets of cardboard are used: insoles, padding, backdrops, etc. Depending on the purpose, cardboard is made of certain types and brands, for which the main indicators are standardized: the thickness of the cardboard, its density, bending rigidity, tensile strength, wetability, formability, dimensional stability And etc.

Rubber and felted shoes. Main materials for manufacturing rubber shoes are black and colored rubber, polyvinyl chloride and polyurethane for upper parts, lining rubber-textile mixtures for coating or lining fabrics. Textile materials are also widely used: for the upper of shoes - two-layer tarpaulin, semi-velvet, cloth, gabardine, etc.; for lining - galoshes, fleece, twill, non-woven fabric with fleece, elastic stockings for lining boots; for finishing - faux fur, decorative ribbons, cords. In addition, varnish is used to cover shoes and various accessories.

For the manufacture of felted shoes They use natural wool, factory wool (taken from animal skins in tanneries) and recovered wool (from scraps of textile materials), as well as skim milk (waste from their own production), goat down and chemical fibers.

8.9.3. Basics of shoe production

Production of leather shoes. The industrial production of leather shoes consists of two stages. At the first stage, called design, a primary sample or model of shoes is created and all the necessary technical documentation is developed. Design includes modeling and designing shoes, which is carried out by fashion designers and designers. At the second stage, shoes are manufactured in batches according to the primary sample.

Let's consider the essence of the main stages of leather shoe production - design (modeling and construction) and manufacturing.

Shoe modeling- the process of creating a sketch of a model in the form of a drawing or three-dimensional layout. Shoe model is a specific product that has individual characteristics of design, materials and external design. The development of models is carried out according to a certain scheme, which allows taking into account all the specified conditions for creating comfortable and appropriate shoes.

Shoe design- the process of creating a sample from individual elements (structural units and parts) by constructing a model drawing and preparing templates. Shoe design represents the structure of a product from individual parts connected into a single harmonious whole. The design process is technically quite complex, since it is necessary to move from the volumetric shape of the last (and shoes) to the flat shape of the parts (get their development - drawing), and also provide allowances for the parts for their mutual fastening and changing the dimensions of the parts during molding, taking into account the unevenness of their deformation properties .

Shoe manufacturing technology includes the following operations (Fig. 8.13): quality control of shoe materials and accessories, assembling them in batches; cutting out the lining, materials for the parts of the top and bottom of the shoes; pre-processing of parts of the bottom and top of shoes; assembly of shoe upper blanks; molding shoe upper blanks; attaching shoe soles: finishing shoes; quality control and shoe packaging.

Quality control of shoe materials and accessories, assembling them in batches carried out upon receipt of shoe materials in the workshop, checking their compliance with the invoice in terms of quantity, area, grade and selecting them into production batches that are uniform in purpose, density, thickness, width, area and color, and degree of defectiveness.

Cutting shoe materials- production from shoe material by cutting and punching out parts for making shoes. The cutting method depends on the type of material.

Natural leather for the uppers and bottoms of shoes is cut on stamping presses and manually using steel cutters. Cutting natural leathers is particularly difficult, since they are characterized by different thicknesses in individual topographic areas and the presence of defects. This forces the use of individual (each skin separately), differentiated by area cutting. When cutting, they strive to use the entire area of ​​the material as fully and economically as possible. For this purpose, special schemes have been developed

cutting leather, the use of which allows to reduce leather waste and obtain a high utilization rate.

For soft artificial leather and textile materials, characterized by more uniform physical and mechanical properties, uniform thickness over the entire area, color, strictly defined width and length, multi-layer cutting by electric machines with band knives is used.

Individual shoe parts made of rubber, plastic, and cardboard are supplied to shoe factories in finished form.

Pre-processing of parts of the bottom and top of shoes carried out with the aim of preparing them for fastening together, improving the appearance and mechanical properties, speeding up the process of sewing shoes.

Assembling shoe upper blanks lies in the fact that the individual external, internal and intermediate parts of the top are combined into a single whole. The choice of fasteners and the sequence of technological operations for assembling blanks depends on the type and design of the shoe upper. How As a rule, workpieces are fastened with thread seams on sewing machines; it is also possible to assemble workpieces by gluing parts or welding them with high-frequency currents (for parts made of artificial and synthetic leather).

Molding of shoe upper blanks consists in giving the flat parts of the workpiece a spatial shape determined by the size and shape of the tightening block.

The upper of the shoe is formed by uniaxial or multiaxial stretching. Depending on the tensile forces applied, molding methods are divided into three groups: external molding, internal molding, and combined.

The operations that complete the molding of the workpiece on the lasts include: hot molding of the heel and toe parts of the workpiece, smoothing and drying the shoes. During the drying process, the shoe's shape is finally fixed. Drying modes are set depending on the properties of the materials of the top, bottom, intermediate parts and type of shoe.

Attaching the sole of a shoe completes the creation of the product design and is carried out using various methods. The method of attaching the sole is a determining factor in shaping the consumer properties of leather shoes. The sole can be attached directly to the tightening edge of the workpiece or to intermediate parts (bearing edge, backing) using pins, screws, nails, glue, threads.

All methods of attaching soles to the top of shoes can be divided into four groups: chemical (glue, hot vulcanization,

nization, casting); thread (sandal, doppel, welt, set-in, reverse, etc.); pin (nail, hairpin, screw); combined (stitch-glue, sandal-glue, welt-glue, etc.).

Chemical fastening methods are most widespread in modern shoe production. They are widely used for the manufacture of footwear of various types and purposes. The share of chemical methods reaches 80%. These methods can be used to attach soles made of leather, rubber and other materials. The advantages of chemical fastening methods are ease of implementation, the possibility of mechanization and automation of production, high productivity, and the ability to produce a wide range of shoes. This method can be used to produce lightweight and flexible shoes, including work and special ones. The resulting bottom is characterized by high wear resistance, good heat-shielding properties, high oil, petrol and water resistance.

Thread methods are widely used in the manufacture of shoes for various purposes with leather and rubber soles. The fastening is carried out with a single-thread or two-thread seam using linen or nylon threads. To protect against the destructive effects of water and sweat, increase strength and facilitate tightening, the threads are impregnated with molten varnish consisting of rosin and viscosine (mineral oil). The strength of the thread fastening of the sole depends on the density, thickness and type of materials being fastened, the moisture content of the sole, the strength of the threads, the frequency of stitching, the degree of tightening of the stitches, etc.

Pin methods involve attaching the sole to the edge of the workpiece and the insole using wooden pins, nails and screws. The wood-pin method has practically lost its importance and is currently not used in industrial production. Screws and nails for pin methods are made of brass, sometimes nails can be made of aluminum alloys. Typically, these methods are used in the manufacture of yuft and tarpaulin boots and ankle boots. The most commonly used method is the nail method of attaching the sole. This method provides a more precise fit to the bottom of the shoe by bending the tips of the nails, but the strength of the sole attachment may vary depending on the frequency of nail placement, the quality of the nail tip, the thickness and moisture content of the insole, the material of the insole and sole, and other factors. Shoes using the nail method of attaching the sole have increased weight, rigidity and waterproofness.

Combined fastening methods are a combination of two main methods - usually thread and glue. The first layer of the sole is attached to the workpiece using one of the thread methods listed above, and the second layer is glued to the first.

Such methods are used to increase the wear resistance of the sole and the strength of its fastening. In this case, the thread seam is isolated from moisture and direct friction. In addition, heat-protective properties increase and water permeability decreases. However, combined methods of fastening the bottom of the shoe make it somewhat heavier and increase the bending rigidity of the bottom structure. When using them, material consumption increases and labor productivity decreases.

Shoe finishing- a set of mechanical and physical-mechanical operations performed after attaching the sole of a shoe. The purpose of finishing is to eliminate defects formed during the production process, as well as to give the shoes an attractive appearance. appearance, increase the water resistance of leather soles. The bottom and top of the shoe are finished differently.

The process of finishing the bottom of shoes consists of groups of operations, the tasks of which are to give the details of the bottom a certain contour corresponding to the shape of the shoe tightened on the last, preparing surfaces for the application of finishing compounds, giving them shine, compacting the edge of the sole and the side surface of the heel, giving them a beautiful appearance and shapes, increasing their water resistance.

In the process of finishing the upper of the shoe, a beautiful appearance is restored, lost as a result of moisture, stretching, as well as due to friction, impact and other influences and when removing contaminants. Finishing the shoe upper involves applying decorative coatings by tinting or printing designs using stencils.

Finished shoes are transferred to the technical control department for quality control. Shoes are sorted, labeled, packed in pairs in cardboard boxes and grouped into batches.

Production of rubber shoes. The production of rubber shoes is carried out mainly by three main methods, which are traditional: the gluing method, stamping and molding. In addition, injection molding, liquid molding, and plastisol molding are used.

Glue method they produce boots, boots, galoshes, shoes.

When using this method, the internal parts are first assembled on hollow aluminum blocks.

or shoes, gluing them, and then the intermediate and outer ones. Each part, after being placed on the block, is rolled with a roller, then all the parts together are crimped on special machines to ensure complete adhesion.

The resulting shoes are varnished, vulcanized, removed from the lasts, assembled in pairs, sorted, labeled, and packaged.

Glued shoes are light, flexible with prominent contours of the details. The walls of the shoes are relatively thin, and traces of crimping are visible along the line where the sole is glued.

Punching method used only for producing men's and boys' galoshes.

Shoes are made in special molds, the core of which serves as a last. A frame of internal parts coated with glue is placed on it. There is a gap between the mold matrix and the core block, which is filled with the required amount of heated rubber mixture using a punch, thereby creating a rubber coating for galoshes. After removal from the core, the resulting product is deburred, varnished and vulcanized.

Stamped shoes are thicker and stiffer than glued ones, heavier, and have traces of the mold.

Molding method used for the manufacture of household and industrial boots, as well as shoes with textile uppers, mainly sports ones.

Molding takes place in vulcanizing presses, where a blank (stocking) assembled from internal and intermediate parts treated with a rubber mixture is put on a core-block. Then the preheated outer parts of the shoes are applied, after which the workpiece is subjected to molding with simultaneous vulcanization, which eliminates the intermediate varnishing of the shoes between these operations. Therefore, the shoes turn out matte, they also have traces of the mold, but are thinner and more elastic than stamped ones.

Injection molding They produce boots and boots from polyvinyl chloride, as well as sports rubber-technical shoes. When making rubber-textile shoes, only the lower part (sole, heel, side) is molded from rubber using injection molding machines, and products from polyvinyl chloride are completely molded. A distinctive feature of this shoe is the presence of traces of stripping on the sprues.

Liquid molding method is based on the interaction of some components of the software used for these purposes

lyurethane, which occurs directly in the mold where the block is located. Boots and boots are made using this method. With increased thermal protection.

At molding shoes from polyvinyl chloride plastisol it is poured into molds, which are placed in heating ovens where plastisol gel is deposited on the inner walls of the molds. Boots and boots are made using this method, but other types of shoes can also be produced.

Production of felted shoes. Unlike leather and rubber, felted shoes are produced in the process of felting from a mixture of wool and other fibers immediately in the form of a whole product without individual parts and connecting seams. Its purpose is limited: protection from low temperatures in normal conditions and from high temperatures in hot shops. This causes small volumes of its production.

Such shoes are made by felting, which is achieved due to the ability of wool fiber to felt.

The fulling production process includes preparing raw materials, mixing, carding, making a base, rolling (compacting), dyeing, fitting the resulting shoe blank onto the last, drying it and finishing. If necessary, attach the rubber sole using the adhesive method or hot vulcanization method. Next, the shoes are matched into pairs and the tops are cut off.

Preparation of raw materials includes its splitting, loosening and cleaning. For natural wool, depilation is also performed.

Making a mixture- one of the main operations of fulling production. Mixing of individual components is carried out using pneumatic mixing plants. Before mixing, the raw materials are oiled.

Carding performed on carding machines. The cotton wool obtained after carding is a clean canvas with a uniform structure.

Making the base produced on two truncated cones, aligned with each other at an angle of 90°. On this installation, previously covered with fabric, cotton wool is wound in several stages until a cone is obtained, the size of which is 2-3 times larger than the size of the finished product. Next, the cones are compacted and curved around the figured cartridges, on one of which the boot is molded, on the other - the head. In order to completely connect the boot with the head, the base is fused.

Valka produced on rolling and hammer machines.

Dyeing is carried out by immersing the semi-finished product in a bath with a dye solution.

Before pad attachment check the dimensions of the semi-finished product: the length along the rear outer part, the width of the top and bottom of the boot, the length of the head, the width of the oblique instep, as well as the size of the pads (the latter is checked once a quarter). Shoe size is determined by the length of the inner footprint, which must correspond to the length of the last.

Drying felted footwear is carried out in trolleys placed in a drying chamber. The degree of drying is determined by the organoleptic method.

Finishing shoes are performed to improve its appearance. Felted shoes are produced without lint, with lint and with brushed lint.

Attaching the sole carried out using the adhesive method, boiler or press vulcanization.

Selection of shoes in pairs carried out taking into account its shape, size, density, wall thickness, finish, color and grade.

Since the art of leather dressing can be safely called one of the most ancient, humanity has been fairly successful in it. Today craftsmen count dozens of types of leather. Suede, chevro, nubuck, saffiano, husky! There is also artificial, combined, PU leather. The variety can make your head spin! Types of leather differ primarily in their properties - strength, water and breathability, thickness, wear resistance, pattern. And each type has its own area of ​​application. For example, there are leathers that are very breathable. They are used to make sports shoes. Other skins, on the contrary, are completely gas-tight. They are used for the manufacture of various technological elements and membranes.

What types of skins are there?!

Leathers differ primarily in origin. There are pork, sheep, horse and so on. The main raw materials for the production of leather products today are the skins of cows, oxen, buffaloes, etc.

These animals are distributed almost everywhere. Their skins are quite large, which is very convenient when sewing large items. The skin of these animals is smooth, very beautiful to look at and practical. It withstands most processing methods. It can be painted and applied in various patterns. Also, types of leather differ in the way it is processed. For example, smooth, embossed, rawhide, varnished.

Smooth skin

Perhaps the most important type of leather. It is called that because the facial surface of the skin retains its natural pattern (I think). Smooth leather refers to all leathers whose surface has undergone minimal or no surface treatment. Only skins of the highest quality, without defects, are suitable for it. Naturally, this is the most expensive type of leather. Prestigious, expensive shoes and clothes are made from them.

Nappa

Thin leather with a smooth surface. This leather may be lightly or heavily treated with dyes and resins. She is not afraid of dirt. Used in the production of shoes. Nappa is obtained from cattle skins.

Suede

Suede (from Pol. zamsz) is a type of leather that is made by soaking pre-prepared raw hides with fats. For this, fats from fish or marine mammals (whales, seals, other animals), as well as vegetable fats such as flaxseed oil, are used. As a result of this process, fats inside the skin are oxidized and a chemical bond is formed with collagen fibers. Depending on the thickness, there are thin, medium and thick shoe suede. To make shoe suede, the skins of almost any small animal are used. These are mainly the skins of the skins or outgrowths of deer and elk, short-tailed sheep, calves, buffalo, wild goats, chamois and antelope. Technical suede is made from the skins of long-tailed sheep. During treatment, the outer layer of skin is removed. Among the features of suede processing, it is also important that both the front side (deer skin) and the bakhtarma (wrong side, sheep skin) are finished. In high-quality suede, the pile is always thick, short and shiny. Also, suede is characterized by an even and deep color; it should be stable during dry and wet friction. Suede is known for its breathability, which is primarily due to its porosity. At the same time, suede is waterproof; the property appears only after the suede absorbs a certain amount of moisture (until this moment it can allow water to pass through). Moreover, even after soaking or washing in soapy water, it does not lose its amazing softness, which is why it is also called “washable leather.” Cold and hot water (up to 60 degrees) does not change the properties of suede; destruction is possible only with prolonged boiling or if it is heated under pressure.

The material has such special properties as softness and velvety, attractive appearance and a high degree of elasticity.

Nubuck

Nubuck is chrome-tanned leather with a rich pile, the front surface of which is sanded with a fine-grained abrasive material. Nubuck is soft, practical with high-quality physical and chemical characteristics and an attractive appearance; it can be painted in different colors. Widely used in the production of footwear for all seasons. It happens - natural, artificial and impregnated. Each type has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Natural nubuck It is made from natural raw materials, therefore it has high environmental performance. When exposed to elevated temperatures (for example, in the summer), shoes made of this material allow air to pass through well - the foot does not sweat or become sweaty. Chrome leather absorbs moisture and retains its molecules in its structure, which reduces wear resistance. Natural nubuck is dried for a long time (up to 72 hours) at room temperature. The velvety surface gives the material a more noble, sophisticated look. Shoes made from natural nubuck are highly durable.

Artificial nubuck, made from synthetic raw materials, with a low price, created as close as possible to natural. It is inferior to natural nubuck in terms of hygienic indicators - it allows air to pass through a little worse. It is not recommended to use this material as the main material in the production of sports shoes. Artificial nubuck is more wear-resistant, as it has moisture-repellent properties.

Nubuck-oil (impregnated)- material made from natural raw materials, treated with protective agents. Chrome leather of this type has the highest wear resistance. It allows air to pass through (breathes) and is not afraid of moisture. Nubuck oil can withstand temperature changes - it does not cause cracks, wrinkles, etc. The shoe material is soft, elastic, slightly heavier than natural. Such models need to be treated with protective agents much less often than shoes made of natural nubuck.

Velours

Velor is soft leather, the surface of which is made to look like velvet, on the subcutaneous side there is a thick, short, monochromatic pile, on the outer side there is a smooth surface. Velor is obtained by sanding the front or back side (bakhtarma) of leather. It is distinguished by thick short pile. Velor is suitable for making the uppers of shoes, bags, belts and clothing. As a rule, velor is obtained from leather with noticeable external defects that affect its strength. These can be various depressions, thinner areas, traces of blood vessels, wrinkles. Therefore, it is not suitable for products with an attractive natural appearance. In addition, with strong friction, the material at the defect site may tear.

The range of velor shoes is very wide. The color scheme can be any, since the fabric is dyed during the production process. In addition, this material is noticeably cheaper than suede, which is similar in appearance, since the production of velor is much cheaper.

Eco-leather

Eco-leather (PU - leather, leather coated with polyurethane) is not artificial leatherette, but a high-quality substitute for genuine leather.

The base of the leather is cotton fabric, which provides softness and hygiene, while it is sufficiently resistant to tearing and stretching. The composition of “eco-leather” includes genuine leather, artificial materials created on the basis of cellulose, and then a polyurethane coating is applied. In addition, the structure of the material has a high coefficient of breathability, so it is hygroscopic and does not create a greenhouse effect. Eco-leather does not overheat in the sun and does not harden in the cold; it is always pleasant and warm to the touch. Eco-leather production technologies ensure good performance qualities of the material.

Features of eco-leather:

• the surface texture accurately imitates natural leather;
• resistance to abrasion and tearing - comparable to the best examples of materials of both artificial and natural origin;
• high tactile properties - soft to the touch, elasticity;
• environmentally friendly in composition - the composition does not include toxic substances, cotton base, genuine leather, polyurethane coating - materials that do not cause allergies;
• frost-resistant - an important quality in our natural conditions;
• ease of cleaning the finished product.

All of the above ensures that products made from eco-leather are environmentally friendly when used. The polyurethane coating is devoid of harmful additives, which is why this material is called “eco-leather”. High durability and ease of maintenance ensure long service life of the shoes and ease of use.

Faux leather

Artificial leather is a material whose properties are close to those of natural animal skin. It is a budget analogue of leather for shoe production. Currently, there are the following types of artificial leather: leatherette, tarpaulin, vinyl artificial leather or polyvinyl chloride, as well as stretch leather.

In modern industry, artificial leather is in demand because it has a number of advantages: technology allows it to be used to create different types of shoes, as well as its individual parts (soles, insoles, etc.).

High-quality artificial leather is durable and reliable in use. During production, it is treated with special substances, which subsequently provide the material with high wear resistance. According to its structure, synthetic leather is divided into types: fibrous, monolithic, porous, single- and multi-layer, mixed. It also differs in appearance, materials used in production, performance characteristics, etc.

Production process artificial leather includes the stages: preparatory, application of polymer coating, surface finishing. At the first stage, a full-fledged base is prepared, which can be fabric, durable paper, or non-woven materials. The choice of material for artificial leather determines its further physical properties. Compaction of the structure and strength of the material are achieved through special treatment with protective agents.

The finishing of artificial leather can be varied, depending on the purpose of the shoe, its seasonality, and type. Decor can be in the form of prints, drawings, patterns, etc.

Shoes made of artificial leather are sensitive to temperature changes and may crack. Untimely treatment of products of this type with protective agents reduces wear resistance. This material is also highly flammable, unlike genuine leather.

Shoes made of artificial leather have the following positive properties: breathability, elasticity, practicality, a wide range of colors, low price. High-quality artificial leather does not emit harmful substances. It is easy to clean and retains its attractive appearance for a long time.

Faux leather is an excellent analogue of natural leather. Shoes made from this material have decent performance characteristics.

Combination skin

Combination leather is the perfect combination of high quality natural and artificial leather.

Artificial materials are used where it is possible to use them without reducing structural strength and other consumer properties. Taking into account places of bends, deformations and friction, an elastic and more durable material is used.

Genuine leather is used in places where it is necessary to provide maximum structural strength (toe, heel), maintain natural moisture exchange properties, reduce friction and prevent the foot from slipping inside the shoe (insole and heel).

Combination leather has high levels of environmental safety for human health and the environment. In shoes made of combination leather, internal circulation of air and water vapor is carried out due to micropores, which eliminates the greenhouse effect, significantly reducing the risk of developing fungal diseases of the feet. The unique qualities of the manufacturing technology give shoes made of mixed leather special durability and comfort. Such shoes allow you to maintain health and reduce stress on your feet. Thanks to the upper made of mixed leathers, the shoes remain light and soft.

Modern developments are not only a combination of physical, aesthetic and environmental properties. Along with this, there is the relevance of the economic component. Innovative technologies make it possible to create inexpensive, beautiful and high-quality shoes from combination leather.